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A Short Guide to DBI

by Mark-Jason=20 Dominus
October 22, = 1999=20

Short guide to DBI (The Perl Database Interface Module) =


General information = about=20 relational databases

Relational databases started to get to be a big deal in the = 1970's,=20 andthey're still a big deal today, which is a little peculiar, = because=20 they're a 1960's technology.

A relational database is a bunch of rectangular tables. Each = row of a=20 table is a record about one person or thing; the record contains = several=20 pieces of information called fields. Here is an example = table:=20 

 LASTNAME   FIRSTNAME   ID   POSTAL_CODE   AGE  SEX
        Gauss      Karl        119  19107         30   M
        Smith      Mark        3    T2V 3V4       53   M
        Noether    Emmy        118  19107         31   F
        Smith      Jeff        28   K2G 5J9       19   M
        Hamilton   William     247  10139         2    M

The names of the fields are LASTNAME,=20 FIRSTNAME, ID, POSTAL_CODE, = AGE, and SEX. Each line in the table is = a=20 record, or sometimes a row or tuple. = For=20 example, the first row of the table represents a 30-year-old male = whose=20 name is Karl Gauss, who lives at postal code 19107, and whose ID = number is=20 119.

Sometimes this is a very silly way to store information. When = the=20 information naturally has a tabular structure it's fine. When it = doesn't,=20 you have to squeeze it into a table, and some of the techniques = for doing=20 that are more successful than others. Nevertheless, tables are = simple and=20 are easy to understand, and most of the high-performance database = systems=20 you can buy today operate under this 1960's model.

About SQL

SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It was = invented at=20 IBM in the 1970's. It's a language for describing searches and=20 modifications to a relational database.

SQL was a huge success, probably because it's incredibly simple = and=20 anyone can pick it up in ten minutes. As a result, all the = important=20 database systems support it in some fashion or another. This = includes the=20 big players, like Oracle and Sybase, high-quality free or = inexpensive=20 database systems like MySQL, and funny hacks like Perl's=20 DBD::CSV module, which we'll see later.

There are four important things one can do with a table:

SELECT
Find all the records that have a certain property

INSERT
Add new records

DELETE
Remove old records

UPDATE
Modify records that are already there=20

Those are the four most important SQL commands, also called=20 queries. Suppose that the example table above is named=20 people. Here are examples of each of the four = important kinds=20 of queries:=20 

 SELECT firstname FROM people WHERE lastname =3D 'Smith'

(Locate the first names of all the Smiths.)=20 

 DELETE FROM people WHERE id =3D 3

(Delete Mark Smith from the table)=20 

 UPDATE people SET age =3D age+1 WHERE id =3D 247

(William Hamilton just had a birthday.)=20 

 INSERT INTO people VALUES ('Euler', 'Leonhard', 248, =
NULL, 58, 'M')

(Add Leonhard Euler to the table.)=20

There are a bunch of other SQL commands for creating and = discarding=20 tables, for granting and revoking access permissions, for = committing and=20 abandoning transactions, and so forth. But these four are the = important=20 ones. Congratulations; you are now a SQL programmer. For the = details, go=20 to any reasonable bookstore and pick up a SQL quick = reference.

Every database system is a little different. You talk to some = databases=20 over the network and make requests of the database engine; other = databases=20 you talk to through files or something else.

Typically when you buy a commercial database, you get a=20 library with it. The vendor has written some functions = for=20 talking to the database in some language like C, compiled the = functions,=20 and the compiled code is the library. You can write a C program = that calls=20 the functions in the library when it wants to talk to the = database.

Every vendor's library is different. The names of the functions = vary,=20 and the order in which you call them varies, and the details of = passing=20 queries to the functions and getting the data back out will vary. = Some=20 libraries, like Oracle's, are very thin=97they just send the query = over to=20 the network to the real database and let the giant expensive real = database=20 engine deal with it directly. Other libraries will do more = predigestion of=20 the query, and more work afterwards to turn the data into a data=20 structure. Some databases will want you to spin around three times = and=20 bark like a chicken; others want you to stand on your head and = drink out=20 of your sneaker.

What DBI is For

There's a saying that any software problem can be solved by = adding a=20 layer of indirection. That's what Perl's DBI = (`Database=20 Interface') module is all about. It was written by Tim Bunce.

DBI is designed to protect you from the details of = the=20 vendor libraries. It has a very simple interface for saying what = SQL=20 queries you want to make, and for getting the results back.=20 DBI doesn't know how to talk to any particular = database, but=20 it does know how to locate and load in DBD (`Database = Driver') modules. The DBD modules have the vendor = libraries=20 in them and know how to talk to the real databases; there is one=20 DBD module for every different database.

When you ask DBI to make a query for you, it sends = the=20 query to the appropriate DBD module, which spins = around three=20 times or drinks out of its sneaker or whatever is necessary to = communicate=20 with the real database. When it gets the results back, it passes = them to=20 DBI. Then DBI gives you the results. = Since your=20 program only has to deal with DBI, and not with the = real=20 database, you don't have to worry about barking like a = chicken.

Here's your program talking to the DBI library. = You are=20 using two databases at once. One is an Oracle database server on = some=20 other machine, and another is a DBD::CSV database = that stores=20 the data in a bunch of plain text files on the local disk.

Your program sends a query to DBI, which forwards = it to=20 the appropriate DBD module; let's say it's=20 DBD::Oracle. DBD::Oracle knows how to = translate=20 what it gets from DBI into the format demanded by the = Oracle=20 library, which is built into it. The library forwards the request = across=20 the network, gets the results back, and returns them to=20 DBD::Oracle. DBD::Oracle returns the = results to=20 DBI as a Perl data structure. Finally, your program = can get=20 the results from DBI.

On the other hand, suppose that your program was querying the = text=20 files. It would prepare the same sort of query in exactly the same = way,=20 and send it to DBI in exactly the same way. = DBI=20 would see that you were trying to talk to the = DBD::CSV=20 database and forward the request to the DBD::CSV = module. The=20 DBD::CSV module has Perl functions in it that tell it = how to=20 parse SQL and how to hunt around in the text files to find the = information=20 you asked for. It then returns the results to DBI as = a Perl=20 data structure. Finally, your program gets the results from=20 DBI in exactly the same way that it would have if you = were=20 talking to Oracle instead.

There are two big wins that result from this organization. = First, you=20 don't have to worry about the details of hunting around in text = files or=20 talking on the network to the Oracle server or dealing with = Oracle's=20 library. You just have to know how to talk to = DBI.

Second, if you build your program to use Oracle, and then the = following=20 week upper management signs a new Strategic Partnership with = Sybase, it's=20 easy to convert your code to use Sybase instead of Oracle. You = change=20 exactly one line in your program, the line that tells = DBI to=20 talk to DBD::Oracle, and have it use = DBD::Sybase=20 instead. Or you might build your program to talk to a cheap, = crappy=20 database like MS Access, and then next year when the application = is doing=20 well and getting more use than you expected, you can upgrade to a = better=20 database next year without changing any of your code.

There are DBD modules for talking to every = important kind=20 of SQL database. DBD::Oracle will talk to Oracle, and = DBD::Sybase will talk to Sybase. = DBD::ODBC will=20 talk to any ODBC database including Microsoft Acesss. (ODBC is a = Microsoft=20 invention that is analogous to DBI itself. There is = no=20 DBD module for talking to Access directly.)=20 DBD::CSV allows SQL queries on plain text files.=20 DBD::mysql talks to the excellent MySQL database from = TCX=20 DataKonsultAB in Sweden. (MySQL is a tremendous bargain: It's=20 $200 for commercial use, and free for noncommerical = use.)

Example of How to Use=20 DBI

Here's a typical program. When you run it, it waits for you to = type a=20 last name. Then it searches the database for people with that last = name=20 and prints out the full name and ID number for each person it = finds. For=20 example:=20 

 Enter name> Noether
                118: Emmy Noether

        Enter name> Smith
                3: Mark Smith
                28: Jeff Smith

        Enter name> Snonkopus
                No names matched `Snonkopus'.
       =20
        Enter name> ^D

Here is the code:=20 

 use DBI;

        my $dbh =3D DBI->connect('DBI:Oracle:payroll')
                or die "Couldn't connect to database: " . =
DBI->errstr;
        my $sth =3D $dbh->prepare('SELECT * FROM people WHERE =
lastname =3D ?')
                or die "Couldn't prepare statement: " . $dbh->errstr;

        print "Enter name> ";
        while ($lastname =3D <>) {               # Read input from =
the user
          my @data;
          chomp $lastname;
          $sth->execute($lastname)             # Execute the query
            or die "Couldn't execute statement: " . $sth->errstr;

          # Read the matching records and print them out         =20
          while (@data =3D $sth->fetchrow_array()) {
            my $firstname =3D $data[1];
            my $id =3D $data[2];
            print "\t$id: $firstname $lastname\n";
          }

          if ($sth->rows =3D=3D 0) {
            print "No names matched `$lastname'.\n\n";
          }

          $sth->finish;
          print "\n";
          print "Enter name> ";
        }
         =20
        $dbh->disconnect;


 use DBI;

This loads in the DBI module. Notice that we don't = have to=20 load in any DBD module. DBI will do that = for us=20 when it needs to.

 my $dbh =3D DBI->connect('DBI:Oracle:payroll');
                or die "Couldn't connect to database: " . =
DBI->errstr;

The connect call tries to connect to a database. = The first=20 argument, DBI:Oracle:payroll, tells DBI = what=20 kind of database it is connecting to. The Oracle part = tells=20 it to load DBD::Oracle and to use that to communicate = with=20 the database. If we had to switch to Sybase next week, this is the = one=20 line of the program that we would change. We would have to change=20 Oracle to Sybase.

payroll is the name of the database we will be = searching.=20 If we were going to supply a username and password to the = database, we=20 would do it in the connect call: 

 my $dbh =3D DBI->connect('DBI:Oracle:payroll', =
'username', 'password')
                or die "Couldn't connect to database: " . =
DBI->errstr;

If DBI connects to the database, it returns a = database=20 handle object, which we store into $dbh. This = object=20 represents the database connection. We can be connected to many = databases=20 at once and have many such database connection obejcts.

If DBI can't connect, it returns an undefined = value. In=20 this case, we use die to abort the program with an = error=20 message. DBI->errstr returns the reason why we = couldn't=20 connect=97``Bad password'' for example. 

 my $sth =3D $dbh->prepare('SELECT * FROM people WHERE =
lastname =3D ?')
                or die "Couldn't prepare statement: " . $dbh->errstr;

The prepare call prepares a query to be executed = by the=20 database. The argument is any SQL at all. On high-end databases,=20 prepare will send the SQL to the database server, = which will=20 compile it. If prepare is successful, it returns a=20 statement handle object which represents the statement; = otherwise=20 it returns an undefined value and we abort the program.=20 $dbh->errstr will return the reason for failure, = which=20 might be ``Syntax error in SQL''. It gets this reason from the = actual=20 database, if possible.

The ? in the SQL will be filled in later. Most = databases=20 can handle this. For some databases that don't understand the=20 ?, the DBD module will emulate it for you and will = pretend=20 that the database understands how to fill values in later, even = though it=20 doesn't.

 print "Enter name> ";

Here we just print a prompt for the user.=20 

 while ($lastname =3D <>) {               # Read =
input from the user
          ...
        }

This loop will repeat over and over again as long as the user = enters a=20 last name. If they type a blank line, it will exit. The Perl=20 <> symbol means to read from the terminal or = from files=20 named on the command line if there were any.

 my @data;

This declares a variable to hold the data that we will get back = from=20 the database.

 chomp $lastname;

This trims the newline character off the end of the user's = input.

 $sth->execute($lastname)             # Execute the =
query
            or die "Couldn't execute statement: " . $sth->errstr;

execute executes the statement that we prepared = before.=20 The argument $lastname is substituted into the SQL in = place=20 of the ? that we saw earlier. execute = returns a=20 true value if it succeeds and a false value otherwise, so we abort = if for=20 some reason the execution fails.

 while (@data =3D $sth->fetchrow_array()) {
            ...
           }

fetchrow_array returns one of the selected rows = from the=20 database. You get back an array whose elements contain the data = from the=20 selected row. In this case, the array you get back has six = elements. The=20 first element is the person's last name; the second element is the = first=20 name; the third element is the ID, and then the other elements are = the=20 postal code, age, and sex.

Each time we call fetchrow_array, we get back a = different=20 record from the database. When there are no more matching records, = fetchrow_array returns the empty list and the=20 while loop exits.=20 

 my $firstname =3D $data[1];
             my $id =3D $data[2];

These lines extract the first name and the ID number from the = record=20 data.=20 

 print "\t$id: $firstname $lastname\n";

This prints out the result. 

 if ($sth->rows =3D=3D 0) {
            print "No names matched `$lastname'.\n\n";
          }

The rows method returns the number of rows of the = database=20 that were selected. If no rows were selected, then there is nobody = in the=20 database with the last name that the user is looking for. In that = case, we=20 print out a message. We have to do this after the=20 while loop that fetches whatever rows were available, = because=20 with some databases you don't know how many rows there were until = after=20 you've gotten them all. 

 $sth->finish;
          print "\n";
          print "Enter name> ";

Once we're done reporting about the result of the query, we = print=20 another prompt so that the user can enter another name.=20 finish tells the database that we have finished = retrieving=20 all the data for this query and allows it to reinitialize the = handle so=20 that we can execute the it again for the next query.=20 

 $dbh->disconnect;

When the user has finished querying the database, they type a = blank=20 line and the main while loop exits. = disconnect=20 closes the connection to the database.

Cached Queries

Here's a function which looks up someone in the example table, = given=20 their ID number, and returns their age:

 sub age_by_id {
          # Arguments: database handle, person ID number
          my ($dbh, $id) =3D @_;
          my $sth =3D $dbh->prepare('SELECT age FROM people WHERE id =
=3D ?')
            or die "Couldn't prepare statement: " . $dbh->errstr;


 $sth->execute($id)=20
            or die "Couldn't execute statement: " . $sth->errstr;


 my ($age) =3D $sth->fetchrow_array();
          return $age;
        }

It prepares the query, executes it, and retrieves the result.=20

There's a problem here though. Even though the function works=20 correctly, it's inefficient. Every time it's called, it prepares a = new=20 query. Typically, preparing a query is a relatively expensive = operation.=20 For example, the database engine may parse and understand the SQL = and=20 translate it into an internal format. Since the query is the same = every=20 time, it's wasteful to throw away this work when the function = returns.

Here's one solution:=20 

 { my $sth;
          sub age_by_id {
            # Arguments: database handle, person ID number
            my ($dbh, $id) =3D @_;


 if (! defined $sth) {
              $sth =3D $dbh->prepare('SELECT age FROM people WHERE id =
=3D ?')
                or die "Couldn't prepare statement: " . $dbh->errstr;
            }


 $sth->execute($id)=20
              or die "Couldn't execute statement: " . $sth->errstr;


 my ($age) =3D $sth->fetchrow_array();
            return $age;
          }
        }

There are two big changes to this function from the previous = version.=20 First, the $sth variable has moved outside of the = function;=20 this tells Perl that its value should persist even after the = function=20 returns. Next time the function is called, $sth will = have the=20 same value as before.

Second, the prepare code is in a conditional = block. It's=20 only executed if $sth does not yet have a value. The = first=20 time the function is called, the prepare code is = executed and=20 the statement handle is stored into $sth. This value = persists=20 after the function returns, and the next time the function is = called,=20 $sth still contains the statement handle and the=20 prepare code is skipped.

Here's another solution:=20 

 sub age_by_id {
          # Arguments: database handle, person ID number
          my ($dbh, $id) =3D @_;
          my $sth =3D $dbh->prepare_cached('SELECT age FROM people =
WHERE id =3D ?')
            or die "Couldn't prepare statement: " . $dbh->errstr;


 $sth->execute($id)=20
            or die "Couldn't execute statement: " . $sth->errstr;


 my ($age) =3D $sth->fetchrow_array();
          return $age;
        }

Here the only change to to replace prepare with=20 prepare_cached. The prepare_cached call = is just=20 like prepare, except that it looks to see if the = query is the=20 same as last time. If so, it gives you the statement handle that = it gave=20 you before.

Transactions

Many databases support transactions. This means that = you can=20 make a whole bunch of queries which would modify the databases, = but none=20 of the changes are actually made. Then at the end you issue the = special=20 SQL query COMMIT, and all the changes are made=20 simultaneously. Alternatively, you can issue the query=20 ROLLBACK, in which case all the queries are thrown = away.

As an example of this, consider a function to add a new = employee to a=20 database. The database has a table called employees = that=20 looks like this:=20 

 FIRSTNAME  LASTNAME   DEPARTMENT_ID
        Gauss      Karl       17
        Smith      Mark       19
        Noether    Emmy       17
        Smith      Jeff       666
        Hamilton   William    17

and a table called departments that looks like = this:=20 

 ID   NAME               NUM_MEMBERS
        17   Mathematics        3
        666  Legal              1
        19   Grounds Crew       1

The mathematics department is department #17 and has three = members:=20 Karl Gauss, Emmy Noether, and William Hamilton.

Here's our first cut at a function to insert a new employee. It = will=20 return true or false depending on whether or not it was = successful:=20 

 sub new_employee {
          # Arguments: database handle; first and last names of new =
employee;
          # department ID number for new employee's work assignment
          my ($dbh, $first, $last, $department) =3D @_;
          my ($insert_handle, $update_handle);


 my $insert_handle =3D=20
            $dbh->prepare_cached('INSERT INTO employees VALUES =
(?,?,?)');=20
          my $update_handle =3D=20
            $dbh->prepare_cached('UPDATE departments=20
                                     SET num_members =3D num_members + 1
                                   WHERE id =3D ?');


 die "Couldn't prepare queries; aborting"
            unless defined $insert_handle && defined =
$update_handle;


 $insert_handle->execute($first, $last, $department) or =
return 0;
          $update_handle->execute($department) or return 0;
          return 1;   # Success
        }

We create two handles, one for an insert query = that will=20 insert the new employee's name and department number into the=20 employees table, and an update query = that will=20 increment the number of members in the new employee's department = in the=20 department table. Then we execute the two queries = with the=20 appropriate arguments.

There's a big problem here: Suppose, for some reason, the = second query=20 fails. Our function returns a failure code, but it's too late, it = has=20 already added the employee to the employees table, = and that=20 means that the count in the departments table is = wrong. The=20 database now has corrupted data in it.

The solution is to make both updates part of the same = transaction. Most=20 databases will do this automatically, but without an explicit = instruction=20 about whether or not to commit the changes, some databases will = commit the=20 changes when we disconnect from the database, and others will roll = them=20 back. We should specify the behavior explicitly.

Typically, no changes will actually be made to the database = until we=20 issue a commit. The version of our program with=20 commit looks like this:=20 

 sub new_employee {
          # Arguments: database handle; first and last names of new =
employee;
          # department ID number for new employee's work assignment
          my ($dbh, $first, $last, $department) =3D @_;
          my ($insert_handle, $update_handle);


 my $insert_handle =3D=20
            $dbh->prepare_cached('INSERT INTO employees VALUES =
(?,?,?)');=20
          my $update_handle =3D=20
            $dbh->prepare_cached('UPDATE departments=20
                                     SET num_members =3D num_members + 1
                                   WHERE id =3D ?');


 die "Couldn't prepare queries; aborting"
            unless defined $insert_handle && defined =
$update_handle;


 my $success =3D 1;
          $success &&=3D $insert_handle->execute($first, =
$last, $department);
          $success &&=3D =
$update_handle->execute($department);


 my $result =3D ($success ? $dbh->commit : =
$dbh->rollback);
          unless ($result) {=20
            die "Couldn't finish transaction: " . $dbh->errstr=20
          }
          return $success;
        }

We perform both queries, and record in $success = whether=20 they both succeeded. $success will be true if both = queries=20 succeeded, false otherwise. If the queries succeded, we commit the = transaction; otherwise, we roll it back, cancelling all our = changes.

The problem of concurrent database access is also solved by=20 transactions. Suppose that queries were executed immediately, and = that=20 some other program came along and examined the database after our = insert=20 but before our update. It would see inconsistent data in the = database,=20 even if our update would eventually have succeeded. But with = transactions,=20 all the changes happen simultaneously when we do the = commit,=20 and the changes are committed automatically, which means that any = other=20 program looking at the database either sees all of them or = none.

do

If you're doing an UPDATE, INSERT, or = DELETE there is no data that comes back from the = database, so=20 there is a short cut. You can say=20 

 $dbh->do('DELETE FROM people WHERE age > 65');

for example, and DBI will prepare the statement, = execute=20 it, and finish it. do returns a true value if it = succeeded,=20 and a false value if it failed. Actually, if it succeeds it = returns the=20 number of affected rows. In the example it would return the number = of rows=20 that were actually deleted. (DBI plays a magic trick = so that=20 the value it turns is true even when it is 0. This is bizarre, = because 0=20 is usually false in Perl. But it's convenient because you can use = it=20 either as a number or as a true-or-false success code, and it = works both=20 ways.)

AutoCommit

If your transactions are simple, you can save yourself the = trouble of=20 having to issue a lot of commits. When you make the=20 connect call, you can specify an = AutoCommit=20 option which will perform an automatic commit = operation after=20 every successful query. Here's what it looks like: 

 my $dbh =3D DBI->connect('DBI:Oracle:payroll',=20
                               {AutoCommit =3D> 1},
                              )
                or die "Couldn't connect to database: " . =
DBI->errstr;

Automatic Error = Handling

When you make the connect call, you can specify a=20 RaiseErrors option that handles errors for you = automatically.=20 When an error occurs, DBI will abort your program = instead of=20 returning a failure code. If all you want is to abort the program = on an=20 error, this can be convenient:

 my $dbh =3D DBI->connect('DBI:Oracle:payroll',=20
                               {RaiseError =3D> 1},
                              )
                or die "Couldn't connect to database: " . =
DBI->errstr;

Don't do This

People are always writing code like this:=20 

 while ($lastname =3D <>) {
          my $sth =3D $dbh->prepare("SELECT * FROM people=20
                                   WHERE lastname =3D '$lastname'");
          $sth->execute();
          # and so on ...
        }

Here we interpolated the value of $lastname = directly into=20 the SQL in the prepare call.

This is a bad thing to do for three reasons.

First, prepare calls can take a long time. The = database=20 server has to compile the SQL and figure out how it is going to = run the=20 query. If you have many similar queries, that is a waste of = time.

Second, it will not work if $lastname contains a = name like=20 O'Malley or D'Amico or some other name with an '. The = ' has a special meaning in SQL, and the database will = not=20 understand when you ask it to prepare a statement that looks like=20 

 SELECT * FROM people WHERE lastname =3D 'O'Malley'

It will see that you have three 's and complain = that you=20 don't have a fourth matching ' somewhere else.

Finally, if you're going to be constructing your query based on = a user=20 input, as we did in the example program, it's unsafe to simply = interpolate=20 the input directly into the query, because the user can construct = a=20 strange input in an attempt to trick your program into doing = something it=20 didn't expect. For example, suppose the user enters the following = bizarre=20 value for $input:

 x' or lastname =3D =
lastname or lastname =3D 'y

Now our query has become something very surprising:

 =
SELECT * FROM people WHERE lastname =3D 'x'=20
         or lastname =3D lastname or lastname =3D 'y'

The part of this query that our sneaky user is interested in is = the=20 second or clause. This clause selects all the records = for=20 which lastname is equal to lastname; = that is,=20 all of them. We thought that the user was only going to be able to = see a=20 few records at a time, and now they've found a way to get them all = at=20 once. This probably wasn't what we wanted.

References

=95 A complete list of DBD modules are = available here
=95=20 You can download these modules here
=95=20 DBI modules are available here
=95 You=20 can get MySQL from http://www.tcx.se/

People go to all sorts of trouble to get around these problems = with=20 interpolation. They write a function that puts the last name in = quotes and=20 then backslashes any apostrophes that appear in it. Then it breaks = because=20 they forgot to backslash backslashes. Then they make their escape = function=20 better. Then their code is a big message because they are calling = the=20 backslashing function every other line. They put a lot of work = into it the=20 backslashing function, and it was all for nothing, because the = whole=20 problem is solved by just putting a ? into the query, = like=20 this=20 

 SELECT * FROM people WHERE lastname =3D ?

All my examples look like this. It is safer and more convenient = and more efficient to do it this way.

3D"


3D"		 3D" 3D"=20
<= /TBODY>
3D"About
3D"
Compilation Copyright =A9 1998-2002 O'Reilly & = Associates,=20 Inc. All Rights Reserved.
All trademarks and registered = trademarks=20 appearing on perl.com are the property of their respective = owners.
For=20 problems or assistance with this site, email help@www.perl.com
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